logo
Volume 13, Issue 1 (2024)                   J Police Med 2024, 13(1) | Back to browse issues page

‎ 10.30505/13.1.7
Ethics code: 0

XML Persian Abstract Print

Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Baheri T, Shokoohi Rad S, Khoshnood M, Kargar A. Determination of Medicinal Impurities of Exposed Heroin using Gas Chromatography. J Police Med 2024; 13 (1) : e7
URL: http://jpmed.ir/article-1-1249-en.html
Determination of Medicinal Impurities of Exposed Heroin using Gas Chromatography
Tahmineh Baheri1, Samad Shokoohi Rad *2, Mahdi Khoshnood3, Ali Kargar4
1- Anti-Narcotics Department, Faculty of Information and criminal investigation Sciences and Techniques, Amin Police University, Tehran, Iran.
2- Anti-Narcotics Department, Faculty of Information and criminal investigation Sciences and Techniques, Amin Police University, Tehran, Iran. , Chemo1446@gmail.com
3- Anti-Narcotics Police Laboratory, Police Headquarters of the Islamic Republic, Tehran, Iran
4- Division of Toxicology, Department of Comparative Bioscience, Faculty of Veterinary medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
English Extended Abstract:   (484 Views)
Background and Aims: Determining the chemical profile plays a fundamental role in identifying the medicinal impurities of heroin and investigating the harmful effects of its abuse. The purpose of this research was to identify the medicinal impurities of exposed heroin using the techniques of gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and to compare and investigate the changes in heroin impurities in the past few years. Method: The current research is analytical-applied. The statistical population of the research included 440 seized heroin samples nationwide, and the samples were analyzed in the reference laboratory for the analysis of narcotics and psychotropic substances by the police in 2023. To determine the profile of heroin samples, 5 mg of each heroin powder sample was dissolved in one milliliter of ethanol and chloroform (1:1) solution containing 0.3 mg of docosane external standard, with the help of an ultrasonic device, and to identify drug impurities in heroin by GC -MS and GC-FID devices were injected. Finding: The drugs acetaminophen, caffeine, dextromethorphan, diazepam, phenobarbital, lidocaine, clotrimazole, and phenolphthalein were present as impurities in the exposed heroin samples. Caffeine, acetaminophen, and dextromethorphan were added in high amounts to increase the amount, and diazepam, phenobarbital, lidocaine, and clotrimazole were added in small amounts to increase the effects of heroin. In 440 examined samples, 75% of the samples had caffeine, 41% acetaminophen, and 28% dextromethorphan, 5% of the samples had other drugs and 25% of the samples had no drug impurities. Result: The drug profile of exposed heroin shows that marketed heroin has numerous drug additives and their type and frequency are changing. Caffeine, acetaminophen, and dextromethorphan are the most important heroin additives that are added to increase the effects and quantity. The addition of these drugs to open heroin has an increasing trend. Tramadol, bipyridine, pheniramine, chloroquine, and clonazepam, which were added to heroin in 2006 and 2007, have been removed from the composition of heroin since 2013 and replaced by clotrimazole, diazepam, phenolphthalein, and lidocaine. Despite reports of the presence of xylazine, fentanyl, olanzapine, sertraline, and trimethoprim in the composition of open heroin in other countries, the desired medicinal substances were not found in open heroin in the country.
Article number: e7
Keywords: Heroin, Drug Impurity, Drug Poisoning
Full-Text [PDF 1074 kb]   (282 Downloads)    
Article Type: Original Research | Subject: Police Medicine Related Technologies
Received: 2024/01/15 | Accepted: 2024/06/25 | Published: 2024/07/3
* Corresponding Author Address: Faculty of Information and criminal investigation Sciences and Techniques, Amin Police University, The Beginning of Shahid Kharazi Highway, The End of Shahid Hemet Gharb Highway, Tehran, Iran, Postal code: 1498619991
References
1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Special points of interest, World Drug Report 2023.
2. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).. Global overview of drug demand and supply, World Drug Report 2017.
3. Lurie IS, Driscoll SE, Cathapermal SS, Panicker S. Determination of heroin and basic impurities for drug profiling by ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography. Forensic science international. 2013 Sep 10;231(1-3):300-5. [DOI:10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.06.008] [PMID]
4. Dams R, Benijts T, Lambert WE, Massart DL, De Leenheer AP. Heroin impurity profiling: trends throughout a decade of experimenting. Forensic science international. 2001 Dec 1;123(2-3):81-8. [DOI:10.1016/S0379-0738(01)00541-2] [PMID]
5. Costantino, C., Moscadini, S., Puccio, G., Cappello, F., & Mazzucco, W. (2017). EuroMediterranean biomedical journal: the renewed manuscript layout and web rendering foreshadow further journal improvement. EuroMediterranean Biomedical Journal, 12(1), 1-5.
6. Strömberg L, Lundberg L, Neumann H, Bobon B, Huizer H, Van der Stelt NW. Heroin impurity profiling: A harmonization study for retrospective comparisons. Forensic science international. 2000 Nov 13;114(2):67-88. [DOI:10.1016/S0379-0738(00)00295-4] [PMID]
7. de Cássia Mariotti K, Marcelo MC, Ortiz RS, Borille BT, Dos Reis M, Fett MS, Ferrão MF, Limberger RP. Seized cannabis seeds cultivated in greenhouse: A chemical study by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometric analysis. Science & Justice. 2016 Jan 1;56(1):35-41. [DOI:10.1016/j.scijus.2015.09.002] [PMID]
8. Chan KW, Tan GH, Wong RC. Gas chromatographic method validation for the analysis of major components in illicit heroin seized in Malaysia. Science & Justice. 2012 Mar 1;52(1):9-16. [DOI:10.1016/j.scijus.2011.07.005] [PMID]
9. Żubrycka A, Kwaśnica A, Haczkiewicz M, Sipa K, Rudnicki K, Skrzypek S, Poltorak L. Illicit drugs street samples and their cutting agents. The result of the GC-MS based profiling define the guidelines for sensors development. Talanta. 2022 Jan 15;237:122904. [DOI:10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122904] [PMID]
10. United Nations Office on Drugs, Crime. Laboratory, Scientific Section. Methods for Impurity Profiling of Heroin and Cocaine: Manual for Use by National Drug Testing Laboratories. United Nations Publications; 2005.
11. Gloger M, Neumann H. Analysis of heroin samples with capillary gas chromatography. Comparison of glass capillary column and packed column. Forensic science international. 1983 Jul 1;22(1):63-74.
12. Barnfield C, Burns S, Byrom DL, Kemmenoe AV. The routine profiling of forensic heroin samples. Forensic Science International. 1988 Nov 1;39(2):107-17. [DOI:10.1016/0379-0738(88)90083-7] [PMID]
13. Neumann H. Vergleichende heroin analyse mit der capillar-GC: Bestimmung charakteristischer kenngressen. Toxichem Krimtech. 1992;59:121.
14. Esseiva P, Anglada F, Dujourdy L, Taroni F, Margot P, Du Pasquier E, Dawson M, Roux C, Doble P. Chemical profiling and classification of illicit heroin by principal component analysis, calculation of inter sample correlation and artificial neural networks. Talanta. 2005 Aug 15;67(2):360-7. [DOI:10.1016/j.talanta.2005.03.041] [PMID]
15. Akhgari M, Jokar F, Bahmanabadi L, Aleagha AE. Street-level heroin seizures in Iran: a survey of components. Journal of Substance Use. 2012 Aug 1;17(4):348-55. [DOI:10.3109/14659891.2011.592898]
16. Quintana P, Ventura M, Grifell M, Palma A, Galindo L, Fornís I, Gil C, Carbón X, Caudevilla F, Farré M, Torrens M. The hidden web and the fentanyl problem: Detection of ocfentanil as an adulterant in heroin. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2017 Feb 1;40:78-83. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.006] [PMID]
17. Slavova S, Costich JF, Bunn TL, Luu H, Singleton M, Hargrove SL, Triplett JS, Quesinberry D, Ralston W, Ingram V. Heroin and fentanyl overdoses in Kentucky: Epidemiology and surveillance. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2017 Aug 1;46:120-9. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.051] [PMID]
18. Ciccarone D, Ondocsin J, Mars SG. Heroin uncertainties: Exploring users' perceptions of fentanyl-adulterated and-substituted 'heroin'. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2017 Aug 1;46:146-55. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.06.004] [PMID] [PMCID]
19. Stein MD, Kenney SR, Anderson BJ, Bailey GL. Perceptions about fentanyl-adulterated heroin and overdose risk reduction behaviors among persons seeking treatment for heroin use. Journal of substance abuse treatment. 2019 Sep 1;104:144-7. [DOI:10.1016/j.jsat.2019.07.006] [PMID] [PMCID]
20. Wei J, Wachuku C, Berk-Krauss J, Steele KT, Rosenbach M, Messenger E. Severe cutaneous ulcerations secondary to xylazine (tranq): A case series. JAAD Case Reports. 2023 Jun 1;36:89-91. [DOI:10.1016/j.jdcr.2023.04.016] [PMID] [PMCID]
21. Johnson J, Pizzicato L, Johnson C, Viner K. Increasing presence of xylazine in heroin and/or fentanyl deaths, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2010-2019. Injury prevention. 2021 Aug 1;27(4):395-8. [DOI:10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043968] [PMID]
22. Debnath R, Chawla PA. Xylazine addiction turning humans to zombies: Fact or Myth?. Health Sciences Review. 2023 Oct 20:100132. [DOI:10.1016/j.hsr.2023.100132]
23. Goyal KG, Tomar NT, Sinha SS, Kumar RK, Mahato SK. Unconventional Adulterants in Seized Heroin Samples: Forensic Insight. Asian Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2020 Oct;4(4):01-12. [DOI:10.38177/ajast.2020.4401]
24. D'Orazio J, Nelson L, Perrone J, Wightman R, Haroz R. Xylazine Adulteration of the Heroin-Fentanyl Drug Supply: A Narrative Review. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2023 Oct;176(10):1370-6. [DOI:10.7326/M23-2001] [PMID]
25. Logan BK, Yeakel JK, Goldfogel G, Frost MP, Sandstrom G, Wickham DJ. Dextromethorphan abuse leading to assault, suicide, or homicide. Journal of forensic sciences. 2012 Sep;57(5):1388-94. [DOI:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02133.x] [PMID]
26. LICHT H, SEEFF LB, ZIMMERMAN HJ. Apparent potentiation of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity by alcohol. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1980 Apr 1;92(4):511-511. [DOI:10.7326/0003-4819-92-4-511_1] [PMID]
27. Black M. Acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. Annual review of medicine. 1984 Jan 1;35:577-93. [DOI:10.1146/annurev.med.35.1.577] [PMID]
28. Hughes JR, Higgins ST, Bickel WK, Hunt WK, Fenwick JW, Gulliver SB, Mireault GC. Caffeine self-administration, withdrawal, and adverse effects among coffee drinkers. Archives of general psychiatry. 1991 Jul 1;48(7):611-7. [DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810310029006] [PMID]
29. Alexander RS, Canver BR, Sue KL, Morford KL. Xylazine and overdoses: trends, concerns, and recommendations. American Journal of Public Health. 2022 Aug;112(8):1212-6. [DOI:10.2105/AJPH.2022.306881] [PMID] [PMCID]
30. Ciccarone D, Ondocsin J, Mars SG. Heroin uncertainties: Exploring users' perceptions of fentanyl-adulterated and-substituted 'heroin'. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2017 Aug 1;46:146-55. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.06.004] [PMID] [PMCID]
31. Gladden RM. Changes in opioid-involved overdose deaths by opioid type and presence of benzodiazepines, cocaine, and methamphetamine-25 states, July-December 2017 to January-June 2018. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2019;68. [DOI:10.15585/mmwr.mm6834a2] [PMID] [PMCID]
32. Kälviäinen R, Äikiä M, Riekkinen PJ. Cognitive adverse effects of antiepileptic drugs: incidence, mechanisms and therapeutic implications. CNS drugs. 1996 May;5:358-68. [DOI:10.2165/00023210-199605050-00005] [PMID]
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for Viral Hepatitis - United States, 2014. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014.
34. EMCDDA, European Drug Report 2021: Trends and Developments (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European :union:, 2021).
35. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY POLICY IMPLICATIONS, World Drug Report 2022.
36. Usman M, Jamshaid T, Naseer A, Baig Y, Mehmood Z, Shahwar M, Akhtar S, Chaudhary MT, Sarwar M, Tahir MA. Component analysis of illicit morphia tablets (clandestine laboratory preparation) using gas chromatography mass spectrometry: a case study. Egyptian journal of forensic sciences. 2018 Dec;8:1-5. [DOI:10.1186/s41935-018-0105-3]
37. Usman M, Baig Y, Naseer A. Forensic Analysis of Fatal Heroin Overdose in Pakistan: Examination of Seized Materials and Postmortem Blood Sample. Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology. 2024 Feb 3;12(3):118-22.
38. Chan KW, Tan GH, Wong RC. Investigation of illicit heroin seized in Malaysia: physical characteristics and chemical profiling. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2012 Dec 1;44(4):353-69. [DOI:10.1080/00450618.2012.674978]
Add your comments about this article : Your username or Email:
CAPTCHA
Send email to the article author

Rights and permissions
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.