نشریه علمی پژوهشی طب انتظامی Journal of Police Medicine
Volume 11, Issue 1 (2022)
J Police Med 2022, 11(1) |
Back to browse issues page
Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Heidarzadeh F, Shahrabadi M, Rostami S, Pazoki M, Abbasi H, Hosseiniara S M et al . Rapid and Accurate Diagnosis of Substance Abuse: A Narrative Review. J Police Med 2022; 11 (1) : e7
URL: http://jpmed.ir/article-1-1049-en.html
URL: http://jpmed.ir/article-1-1049-en.html
Fatemeh Heidarzadeh1, MohammadHossein Shahrabadi1, Shahideh Rostami1, Majid Pazoki1, Hessan Abbasi1, Seyed Morteza Hosseiniara1, SeyedReza Hosseiniara *2
1- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran , hosseiniara7@gmail.com
2- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran , hosseiniara7@gmail.com
English Extended Abstract: (4066 Views)
Introduction
One of the major problems in the world is drug abuse [1]. ... [2]. For accurate diagnosis of drug abuse, two important principles are the amount of substance remaining in the body and the time of testing ... [3, 4]. ... [5-10]. Iran has higher rate of drug use than other countries in the world; so its consumption in the country has trebled rather than the population growth rate [11]. ... [12]. Laboratories typically use urine, blood, breath, saliva, sweat, and hair to diagnose drug use. Studies have been published on the use of nails to diagnose abuse [13, 14]. Taking certain medications may interfere with the diagnosis of addiction. There is also the possibility of fraud in some tests. Accurate and rapid diagnosis of drug abuse has great clinical importance [13, 14]. …. [15].
Aim (s)
In various areas of police force, such as traffic police, crime detection and forensics science, accurate and rapid diagnosis of drug use is very important. The present study aims to review subsequent studies in the field of rapid and accurate diagnosis of substance use.
Research Type
This research is a narrative review.
Research Society, Place and Time
The statistical population of this review study was articles that had studied rapidly and accurately diagnosed drug abuse in different years (regardless of the time limit in the year of publication). Articles were searched with the keywords substance abuse, drug abuse, detection, drugs. English articles were searched in the databases of Science Direct, Google Scholar, Springer, Scopus and PubMed, and Persian articles were searched in the scientific databases of Jihad Daneshgahi (SID) and the Iranian Scientific Information and Document Research Institute (Irandoc) and the Iranian Journal of Magazines (Magiran).
Finding by Text
Among 76 articles after search and screening, 24 articles were obtained in the field of rapid and accurate diagnosis of drug abuse. Urine testing: The most common method for measuring drug abuse [16]. ... [17]. Urine collection is a non-invasive method compared to blood and collected in larger volumes and contains metabolites that can be used to measure drug abuse. However, urine use depends on the amount of drug used, the type of drug, the half-life of the drug, and the last time of use. There are also three problems with urine testing: false positives, degeneration of observed urine collection, and cases of fraud (false negatives) [18]. There are two common methods for diagnosing urinary abuse: TLC detection and Liquid – Liquid Extraction (LLE) detection [19]. Urine toxicology is usually positive up to two days after most drugs abuse. More precisely, this period is three days for heroin, amphetamine, cocaine, seven days for nicotine, 10 days for opium, and more than 30 days for long-term use of marijuana. Although the abuse of many of these drugs are identified in the urine, some of them are better detectable in the blood [16]. Blood test: blood test is one of the most reliable and accurate methods in the list of methods to diagnose substance abuse due to the fact that the type of drug and the amount of use detected in the blood from a few hours to a few days and then enter other parts of the body. However, due to the cost of this method, low material retention in the blood and the need for advanced equipment and devices to identify the material, it is less used than other methods [20]. Most drugs can be detected in the blood or plasma in the lowest amount (in Nano grams per milliliter) for a day or two. Detection of drugs in body fluids, especially in the blood as well as tissue, is hampered by the small size of the biodegradable samples. Therefore, sample optimization and the use of whole blood instead of plasma have been considered [21]. Hair test: Hair has the advantage of calculating the medication taken a few days or months in advance, and as a result, hair analysis is considered a time indicator [22]. ... [23]. Instrumental methods used in hair analysis include Immunochemical Techniques, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC – MS) and (LC – MS) Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry. Hair has been considered for the diagnosis of previous and chronic drugs due to its wider detection period, non-invasive collection, and greater stability compared to body fluids or other tissues [24]. ... [25-27]. The wider detection range is the biggest advantage of hair tests over urine and blood tests for medications. Hair can also indicate the history and frequency of drug use. Hair analysis can protect against false positive urine test materials due to sample mixing, sample contamination, or administrative errors. Hair testing in the treatment of abuse can identify patterns of long-term use. Studies conducted at a detoxification center have shown that hair analysis is more sensitive than urine screening to detect illicit drug use [28, 29]. Despite the benefits of hair testing, this technique is not widely used due to the increased cost and longer analysis time compared to urine. Also, the hair test cannot detect recent exposure to the substance or give instant results [24]. Nail tests: Nails have become a useful example for diagnosing drug abuse over the past few decades. Chemicals such as illicit substances, drugs, alcohol, etc. can remain in the fingernails for 3 to 5 months and in the toenails for 8-14 months. ... [30]. A review study of the application of nail testing in drug treatment programs, identification of drug exposure in utero has been done by Cappelle et al. [31]. ... [32]. Nail sampling is relatively simple, and advances in analytical equipment technology make it possible to accurately measure in very small amounts of major constituents as well as metabolites [33]. Sweat test: Sweat is chemically similar to blood plasma, but some of its compounds are selectively excreted [34]. ... [35]. Drugs are excreted by the body through sweat ... [16]. The use of special pads for collecting and testing sweat may cause skin blockage problems such as skin irritation, skin pH change and accumulation of skin bacteria, which are mentioned as the disadvantages of this method [36]. ... [37]. The use of sweat for drug testing has problems in sample collection and sensitivity of analysis methods [38]. Sweat tests are also used to diagnose drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opiates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, phencyclidine and nicotine [39]. Saliva test: The saliva test provides information similar to a blood test but is less invasive. By analyzing saliva, various drugs and chemicals such as cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, etc. can be identified. On the other hand, this type of test is similar to urine test in terms of characteristics, but saliva analysis can be done in a shorter period of time (24 to 48 hours) than urine because the concentration of substances in saliva is low. This test has two advantages over a urine test: first, the sample is easier to collect than urine; second, the possibility of deceptions which is in the urine test is not possible in this method [40]. Saliva tests may be a good complement to blood samples; in some cases, it may be a good alternative to blood. Problems such as oral retention and pH change of the sample and access to saliva test only in living patients are the disadvantages of this method, but due to the ability of non-invasive sampling and easy access to the sample and lack of sample screening in techniques such as spectrophotometry, etc., it is considered as an alternative to blood tests. [41]. ... [42].]. Spirometry test: Spirometry test has been introduced as a matrix for drug detection. The finding that amphetamines, methadone, and tetrahydrocannabinol are readily detectable after inhalation has led to further development of this matrix for the detection of substance abuse [43]. ... Respiratory, plasma, and urine data are well-matched and support expiratory respiration as a new matrix in clinical toxicology. The expiratory breathing technique is as accurate as plasma and urine and is a good alternative in cases where the latest consumption should be considered [44]. ... [45]. On-site testing using portable devices is one of the benefits of respiratory testing, which is sometimes important for traffic police [46].
Conclusions
The choice of test method depends on factors such as cost, ease of sample collection, risk of fraud, type of test (immediate or laboratory), period of use (acute or chronic), time of last use.
Clinical & Practical Tips in Police Medicine
For police in different areas such as traffic police, crime detection, and forensics science, access to accurate and rapid diagnostic tests to measure drug abuse is critical; therefore, studies in this field and the development of methods are ongoing.
Conflict of Interest
The authors state that there is no conflict of interest in the present study.
One of the major problems in the world is drug abuse [1]. ... [2]. For accurate diagnosis of drug abuse, two important principles are the amount of substance remaining in the body and the time of testing ... [3, 4]. ... [5-10]. Iran has higher rate of drug use than other countries in the world; so its consumption in the country has trebled rather than the population growth rate [11]. ... [12]. Laboratories typically use urine, blood, breath, saliva, sweat, and hair to diagnose drug use. Studies have been published on the use of nails to diagnose abuse [13, 14]. Taking certain medications may interfere with the diagnosis of addiction. There is also the possibility of fraud in some tests. Accurate and rapid diagnosis of drug abuse has great clinical importance [13, 14]. …. [15].
Aim (s)
In various areas of police force, such as traffic police, crime detection and forensics science, accurate and rapid diagnosis of drug use is very important. The present study aims to review subsequent studies in the field of rapid and accurate diagnosis of substance use.
Research Type
This research is a narrative review.
Research Society, Place and Time
The statistical population of this review study was articles that had studied rapidly and accurately diagnosed drug abuse in different years (regardless of the time limit in the year of publication). Articles were searched with the keywords substance abuse, drug abuse, detection, drugs. English articles were searched in the databases of Science Direct, Google Scholar, Springer, Scopus and PubMed, and Persian articles were searched in the scientific databases of Jihad Daneshgahi (SID) and the Iranian Scientific Information and Document Research Institute (Irandoc) and the Iranian Journal of Magazines (Magiran).
Finding by Text
Among 76 articles after search and screening, 24 articles were obtained in the field of rapid and accurate diagnosis of drug abuse. Urine testing: The most common method for measuring drug abuse [16]. ... [17]. Urine collection is a non-invasive method compared to blood and collected in larger volumes and contains metabolites that can be used to measure drug abuse. However, urine use depends on the amount of drug used, the type of drug, the half-life of the drug, and the last time of use. There are also three problems with urine testing: false positives, degeneration of observed urine collection, and cases of fraud (false negatives) [18]. There are two common methods for diagnosing urinary abuse: TLC detection and Liquid – Liquid Extraction (LLE) detection [19]. Urine toxicology is usually positive up to two days after most drugs abuse. More precisely, this period is three days for heroin, amphetamine, cocaine, seven days for nicotine, 10 days for opium, and more than 30 days for long-term use of marijuana. Although the abuse of many of these drugs are identified in the urine, some of them are better detectable in the blood [16]. Blood test: blood test is one of the most reliable and accurate methods in the list of methods to diagnose substance abuse due to the fact that the type of drug and the amount of use detected in the blood from a few hours to a few days and then enter other parts of the body. However, due to the cost of this method, low material retention in the blood and the need for advanced equipment and devices to identify the material, it is less used than other methods [20]. Most drugs can be detected in the blood or plasma in the lowest amount (in Nano grams per milliliter) for a day or two. Detection of drugs in body fluids, especially in the blood as well as tissue, is hampered by the small size of the biodegradable samples. Therefore, sample optimization and the use of whole blood instead of plasma have been considered [21]. Hair test: Hair has the advantage of calculating the medication taken a few days or months in advance, and as a result, hair analysis is considered a time indicator [22]. ... [23]. Instrumental methods used in hair analysis include Immunochemical Techniques, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC – MS) and (LC – MS) Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry. Hair has been considered for the diagnosis of previous and chronic drugs due to its wider detection period, non-invasive collection, and greater stability compared to body fluids or other tissues [24]. ... [25-27]. The wider detection range is the biggest advantage of hair tests over urine and blood tests for medications. Hair can also indicate the history and frequency of drug use. Hair analysis can protect against false positive urine test materials due to sample mixing, sample contamination, or administrative errors. Hair testing in the treatment of abuse can identify patterns of long-term use. Studies conducted at a detoxification center have shown that hair analysis is more sensitive than urine screening to detect illicit drug use [28, 29]. Despite the benefits of hair testing, this technique is not widely used due to the increased cost and longer analysis time compared to urine. Also, the hair test cannot detect recent exposure to the substance or give instant results [24]. Nail tests: Nails have become a useful example for diagnosing drug abuse over the past few decades. Chemicals such as illicit substances, drugs, alcohol, etc. can remain in the fingernails for 3 to 5 months and in the toenails for 8-14 months. ... [30]. A review study of the application of nail testing in drug treatment programs, identification of drug exposure in utero has been done by Cappelle et al. [31]. ... [32]. Nail sampling is relatively simple, and advances in analytical equipment technology make it possible to accurately measure in very small amounts of major constituents as well as metabolites [33]. Sweat test: Sweat is chemically similar to blood plasma, but some of its compounds are selectively excreted [34]. ... [35]. Drugs are excreted by the body through sweat ... [16]. The use of special pads for collecting and testing sweat may cause skin blockage problems such as skin irritation, skin pH change and accumulation of skin bacteria, which are mentioned as the disadvantages of this method [36]. ... [37]. The use of sweat for drug testing has problems in sample collection and sensitivity of analysis methods [38]. Sweat tests are also used to diagnose drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opiates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, phencyclidine and nicotine [39]. Saliva test: The saliva test provides information similar to a blood test but is less invasive. By analyzing saliva, various drugs and chemicals such as cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, etc. can be identified. On the other hand, this type of test is similar to urine test in terms of characteristics, but saliva analysis can be done in a shorter period of time (24 to 48 hours) than urine because the concentration of substances in saliva is low. This test has two advantages over a urine test: first, the sample is easier to collect than urine; second, the possibility of deceptions which is in the urine test is not possible in this method [40]. Saliva tests may be a good complement to blood samples; in some cases, it may be a good alternative to blood. Problems such as oral retention and pH change of the sample and access to saliva test only in living patients are the disadvantages of this method, but due to the ability of non-invasive sampling and easy access to the sample and lack of sample screening in techniques such as spectrophotometry, etc., it is considered as an alternative to blood tests. [41]. ... [42].]. Spirometry test: Spirometry test has been introduced as a matrix for drug detection. The finding that amphetamines, methadone, and tetrahydrocannabinol are readily detectable after inhalation has led to further development of this matrix for the detection of substance abuse [43]. ... Respiratory, plasma, and urine data are well-matched and support expiratory respiration as a new matrix in clinical toxicology. The expiratory breathing technique is as accurate as plasma and urine and is a good alternative in cases where the latest consumption should be considered [44]. ... [45]. On-site testing using portable devices is one of the benefits of respiratory testing, which is sometimes important for traffic police [46].
Conclusions
The choice of test method depends on factors such as cost, ease of sample collection, risk of fraud, type of test (immediate or laboratory), period of use (acute or chronic), time of last use.
Clinical & Practical Tips in Police Medicine
For police in different areas such as traffic police, crime detection, and forensics science, access to accurate and rapid diagnostic tests to measure drug abuse is critical; therefore, studies in this field and the development of methods are ongoing.
Conflict of Interest
The authors state that there is no conflict of interest in the present study.
Article number: e7
Article Type: Narrative Review |
Subject:
Addiction & Substance Abuse
Received: 2021/09/18 | Accepted: 2021/11/29 | Published: 2021/12/31
Received: 2021/09/18 | Accepted: 2021/11/29 | Published: 2021/12/31
Extended Abstract [HTM 35 KB] (28 Download)
References
1. Nessa A, Latif SA, Siddiqui NI, Hussain MA, Drug abuse and addiction. Mymensingh Med J. 2008;17(2):227-35. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18626465/
2. Ait-Daoud N, Blevins D, Khanna S, Sharma S, Holstege CP. Women and addiction. Psychiatric Clinic North Am. 2017;40(2):285-97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2017.01.005 [DOI:10.1016/j.psc.2017.01.005.] [PMID]
3. Babor TF, McRee BG, Kassebaum PA, Grimaldi PL, Ahmed K, Bray J. Screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT):toward a public health approach to the management of substance abuse. Subst Abus. 2007;28(3):7-30. doi: 10.1300/J465v28n03_03. [DOI:10.1300/J465v28n03_03] [PMID]
4. Graziano S, Anzillotti L, Mannocchi G, Pichini S, Busardò FP. Screening methods for rapid determination of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2019;163:170-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2018.10.011 [DOI:10.1016/j.jpba.2018.10.011.] [PMID]
5. Tracy DK, Wood DM, Baumeister D. Novel psychoactive substances: types, mechanisms of action, and effects. BMJ. 2017;25:356. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.i6848. [DOI:10.1136/bmj.i6848] [PMID]
6. Bronson J, Stroop J, Zimmer S, Berzofsky M. Drug use, dependence, and abuse among state prisoners and jail inmates, 2007-2009. United States: Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs; 2017 Jun. 27 p. Report No: NCJ 250546. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/dudaspji0709.pdf
7. Jones CM, Christensen A, Gladden RM. Increases in prescription opioid injection abuse among treatment admissions in the United States, 2004-2013. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;176:89-95. Doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.011. [DOI:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.011] [PMID]
8. Rahimi Movaghar A, Sharifi V, Mohammadi MR, et al. Researches on substance use in Iran; 3 decades evaluation. Hakim Res J. 2006;8(4):37-44. https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=49017.
9. Baler RD, Volkow ND. Drug addiction: the neurobiology of disrupted self-control. Trends Mol Med. 2006;12(12):559-66. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2006.10.005. [DOI:10.1016/j.molmed.2006.10.005] [PMID]
10. Sadeghi S, Fathi A. Developing a structural model of the role of social health on high-risk behaviors of young people mediated by resilience: social order. J Police Med. 2021;10 (4) :255-62. [Persian]. doi:10.30505/10.4.255.
11. Kavian M, Lavasani F, Rahimi Movaghar A,et al. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of substance dependence for mass media directors. Tehran: State Welfare Organization of Iran; 2002. 409 p. https://www.unodc.org/documents/islamicrepublicofiran/publications/Mass%20Media.pdf.
12. Siyam SH. Drug abuse prevalence between male students of different universities in Rasht in 2005. Zahedan J Res Med Sci(Tabib-e-shargh). 2007;8(4):279-85.[Persian]. https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=84981.
13. Lozano J, García-Algar O, Vall O, De La Torre R, Scaravelli G, Pichini S. Biological matrices for the evaluation of in utero exposure to drugs of abuse. Ther Drug Monit. 2007;29(6):711-34. doi: 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31815c14ce. [DOI:10.1097/FTD.0b013e31815c14ce] [PMID]
14. Janicka M, Kot-Wasik A, Namieśnik J. Analytical procedures for determination of cocaine and its metabolites in biological samples. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2010;29(3):209-24. DOI:10.1016/j.trac.2009.12.005. [DOI:10.1016/j.trac.2009.12.005]
15. Meinhart CD, Moskovits M, Fountain III AW, Kline ND. Rapid detection of drugs and explosives for forensic analysis. ECBC; 2018. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1065041
16. Kintz P. Drug testing in addicts: a comparison between urine, sweat, and hair. Ther Drug Monit. 1996;18(4):450-5. doi: 10.1097/00007691-199608000-00024. [DOI:10.1097/00007691-199608000-00024] [PMID]
17. Yang PJ, Pham J, Choo J, Hu DL. Duration of urination does not change with body size. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014;111(33):11932-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1402289111. [DOI:10.1073/pnas.1402289111] [PMID] [PMCID]
18. Gourlay DL, Heit HA. Urine drug testing in pain medicine. JPSM. 2004;27(3):260-7. [DOI:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2003.07.008] [PMID]
19. Guo L, Lin Z, Huang Z, Liang H, Jiang Y, Ye Y et al. Simple and rapid analysis of four amphetamines in human whole blood and urine using liquid-liquid extraction without evaporation/derivatization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol. 2015;33(1):104-11. DOI:10.1007/s11419-014-0257-2. [DOI:10.1007/s11419-014-0257-2]
20. Skoglund C, Hermansson U, Beck O. Clinical trial of a new technique for drugs of abuse testing: a new possible sampling technique. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;48(1):132-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2014.09.003. [DOI:10.1016/j.jsat.2014.09.003] [PMID]
21. Kumar P, Sharma A, Kumar D, Sharma L. Use of Spectroscopic Methods and their clinical applications in drug abuse: A review. Crit Rev Anal Chem. 2021;1-14. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34376090/.
22. Boumba VA, Ziavrou KS, Vougiouklakis T. Hair as a biological indicator of drug use, drug abuse or chronic exposure to environmental toxicants. Int J Toxicol. 2006;25(3):143-63. doi: 10.1080/10915810600683028. [DOI:10.1080/10915810600683028] [PMID]
23. Baumgartner WA, Hill VA, Blahd WH. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. J Forensic Sci. 1989;34(6):1433-53. DOI:10.1520/JFS12787J. [DOI:10.1520/JFS12787J]
24. Balíková M. Hair analysis for drug abuse. Plausibility of interpretation. Biomed Pap-palacky Univ Olomouc. 2006;149(2):199-207. DOI:10.5507/bp.2005.026. [DOI:10.5507/bp.2005.026]
25. Pragst F, Balikova MA. State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin Chim Acta. 2006;370(1-2):17-49. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2006.02.019. [DOI:10.1016/j.cca.2006.02.019] [PMID]
26. Villain M, Cirimele V, Kintz P. Hair analysis in toxicology. Clin Chem Lab Med (CCLM). 2004;42(11):1265-72.
https://doi.org/10.1515/CCLM.2004.247 [DOI:10.1515/CCLM.2004.247.] [PMID]
27. Savvopoulos MA, Pallis E, Tzatzarakis MN, Dialyna IA, Tzanakakis GN, Tzatzarakis AM. Legal issues of addiction assessment: the experience with hair testing in Greece. J Appl Toxicol: 2005;25(2):143-52. DOI:10.1002/jat.1047. [DOI:10.1002/jat.1047] [PMID]
28. Mali N, Karpe M, Kadam V. A review on biological matrices and analytical methods used for determination of drug of abuse. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2011;1(6):58-65. https://www.japsonline.com/admin/php/uploads/124_pdf.pdf
29. Klein J, Karaskov T, Koren G. Clinical applications of hair testing for drugs of abuse-the Canadian experience. Forensic Sci Int. 2000;107(1-3):281-8. doi: 10.1016/s0379-0738(99)00171-1. [DOI:10.1016/S0379-0738(99)00171-1]
30. Cappelle D, Yegles M, Neels H, van Nuijs AL, De Doncker M, Maudens K,et al. Nail analysis for the detection of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals: a review. Forensic Toxicol. 2015;33(1):12-36. http://.doi.org/10.1007/s11419-014-0258-1. [DOI:10.1007/s11419-014-0258-1]
31. Baumgartner MR. Nails: an adequate alternative matrix in forensic toxicology for drug analysis?. Bioanalysis. 2014;6(17):2189-91. doi: 10.4155/bio.14.165. [DOI:10.4155/bio.14.165] [PMID]
32. Hang C, Ping X, Min S. Long-term follow-up analysis of zolpidem in fingernails after a single oral dose. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2013;405(23):7281-9. doi: 10.1007/s00216-013-7188-3. [DOI:10.1007/s00216-013-7188-3] [PMID]
33. Shu I, Jones J, Jones M, Lewis D, Negrusz A. Detection of drugs in nails: Three year experience. J Anal Toxicol. 2015;39(8):624-8.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkv067 [DOI:10.1093/jat/bkv067https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkv067.] [PMID]
34. Huestis MA, Oyler JM, Cone EJ, Wstadik AT, Schoendorfer D, Joseph Jr RE. Sweat testing for cocaine, codeine and metabolites by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 1999;733(1-2):247-64. doi: 10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00246-7 [DOI:10.1016/S0378-4347(99)00246-7]
35. Cone EJ, Hillsgrove MJ, Jenkins AJ, Keenan RM, Darwin WD. Sweat testing for heroin, cocaine, and metabolites. J Anal Toxicol. 1994;18(6):298-305. doi: 10.1093/jat/18.6.298. [DOI:10.1093/jat/18.6.298] [PMID]
36. Koster RA, Alffenaar JW, Greijdanus B, VanDerNagel JE, Uges DR. Application of sweat patch screening for 16 drugs and metabolites using a fast and highly selective LC-MS/MS method. Ther Drug Monit. 2014;36(1):35-45. DOI: 10.1097/FTD.0b013e3182a04feb. [DOI:10.1097/FTD.0b013e3182a04feb] [PMID]
37. Kintz P, Cirimele V, Ludes B. Detection of cannabis in oral fluid (saliva) and forehead wipes (sweat) from impaired drivers. J Anal Toxicol. 2000;24(7):557-61. doi: 10.1093/jat/24.7.557. [DOI:10.1093/jat/24.7.557] [PMID]
38. De Giovanni N, Fucci N. The current status of sweat testing for drugs of abuse: a review. Curr Med Chem. 2013;20(4):545-61. doi: 10.2174/0929867311320040006. [DOI:10.2174/0929867311320040006] [PMID]
39. Huestis MA, Cone EJ, Wong CJ, Umbricht A, Preston KL. Monitoring opiate use in substance abuse treatment patients with sweat and urine drug testing. J Anal Toxicol. 2000;1:24(7):509-21. doi: 10.1093/jat/24.7.509. [DOI:10.1093/jat/24.7.509] [PMID]
40. Cone EJ. Saliva testing for drugs of abuse. Ann N.Y Acad Sci. 1993;694(1):91-127. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993 [DOI:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb18346.x] [PMID]
41. Mateos-Moreno MV, del-Río-Highsmith J, Riobóo-García R, Solá-Ruiz MF, Celemín-Viñuela A. Dental profile of a community of recovering drug addicts: Biomedical aspects. Retrospective cohort study. Med Oral, Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18(4):e671-9. doi: 10.4317/medoral.18669. [DOI:10.4317/medoral.18669] [PMID] [PMCID]
42. Inscore F, Shende C, Sengupta A, Huang H, Farquharson S. Detection of drugs of abuse in saliva by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Appl Spectros. 2011;65(9):1004-8. doi: 10.1366/11-06310. [DOI:10.1366/11-06310] [PMID]
43. Carlsson S, Olsson R, Lindkvist I, Beck O. Application of drug testing using exhaled breath for compliance monitoring of drug addicts in treatment. Scand J Clin ab Invest. 2015;75(2):156-61. DOI: 10.3109/00365513.2014.993336. [DOI:10.3109/00365513.2014.993336] [PMID]
44. Beck O, Leine K, Palmskog G, Franck J. Amphetamines detected in exhaled breath from drug addicts: a new possible method for drugs-of-abuse testing. J Toxicol. 2010;34(5):233-7. doi: 10.1093/jat/34.5.233. [DOI:10.1093/jat/34.5.233] [PMID]
45. Arvidsson M, Ullah S, Franck J, Dahl ML, Beck O. Drug abuse screening with exhaled breath and oral fluid in adults with substance use disorder. Drug Test Ana. 2019;11(1):27-32. doi: 10.1002/dta.2384. [DOI:10.1002/dta.2384] [PMID]
46. Beck O. Exhaled breath for drugs of abuse testing-evaluation in criminal justice settings. Sci Justice. 2014;54(1):57-60. DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2013.09.007. [DOI:10.1016/j.scijus.2013.09.007] [PMID]
Send email to the article author
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |